Five things that make Go fast
Anthony Starks has remixed my original Google Present based slides using his fantastic Deck presentation tool. You can check out his remix over on his blog,mindchunk.blogspot.com.au/2014/06/remixing-with-deck. I was recently invited to give a talk at Gocon,a fantastic Go conference held semi-annually in Tokyo,Japan.Gocon 2014was an entirely community-run one day eventcombining training and an afternoon of presentations surrounding the theme of The following is the text of my presentation. The original text was structured to force me to speak slowly and clearly,so I have taken the liberty of editing it slightly to be more readable. I want to thankBill Kennedy,Minux Ma,and especiallyJosh Bleecher Snyder,for their assistance in preparing this talk. Good afternoon. My name is David. I am delighted to be here at Gocon today. I have wanted to come to this conference for two years and I am very grateful to the organisers for extending me the opportunity to present to you today. Why are people choosing to use Go ? When people talk about their decision to learn Go,or use it in their product,they have a variety of answers,but there always three that are at the top of their list The first,Concurrency. Go’s concurrency primitives are attractive to programmers who come from single threaded scripting languages like Nodejs,Ruby,or Python,or from languages like C++ or Java with their heavyweight threading model. Ease of deployment. We have heard today from experienced Gophers who appreciate the simplicity of deploying Go applications.
This leaves Performance. I believe an important reason why people choose to use Go is because it isfast. For my talk today I want to discuss five features that contribute to Go’s performance. I will also share with you the details of how Go implements these features. The first feature I want to talk about is Go’s efficient treatment and storage of values. This is an example of a value in Go. When compiled, Let’s compare Go with some other languages Due to the overhead of the way Python represents variables,storing the same value using Python consumes six times more memory. This extra memory is used by Python to track type information,do reference counting,etc Let’s look at another example: Similar to Go,the Java However,to use this value in a collection like a So an integer in Java frequently looks more like this and consumes between 16 and 24 bytes of memory. Why is this important ? Memory is cheap and plentiful,why should this overhead matter ? This is a graph showing CPU clock speed vs memory bus speed. Notice how the gap between CPU clock speed and memory bus speed continues to widen. The difference between the two is effectively how much time the CPU spends waiting for memory. Since the late 1960’s CPU designers have understood this problem. Their solution is a cache,an area of smaller,faster memory which is inserted between the CPU and main memory. This is a We can use this type to construct an array type of 1,000 Inside the array,the This is important because now all 1,monospace; line-height:2">Locationstructures are in the cache in sequence,packed tightly together. Go lets you create compact data structures,avoiding unnecessary indirection. Compact data structures utilise the cache better. Better cache utilisation leads to better performance. Function calls are not free. Three things happen when a function is called. A new stack frame is created,and the details of the caller recorded. Any registers which may be overwritten during the function call are saved to the stack. The processor computes the address of the function and executes a branch to that new address. Because function calls are very common operations,CPU designers have worked hard to optimise this procedure,but they cannot eliminate the overhead. Depending on what the function does,this overhead may be trivial or significant. A solution to reducing function call overhead is an optimisation technique called Inlining. The Go compiler inlines a function by treating the body of the function as if it were part of the caller. Inlining has a cost; it increases binary size. It only makes sense to inline when the overhead of calling a function is large relative to the work the function does,so only simple functions are candidates for inlining. Complicated functions are usually not dominated by the overhead of calling them and are therefore not inlined. This example shows the function To reduce the overhead of the call to After inlining there is no longer a call to Inlining isn’t exclusive to Go. Almost every compiled or JITed language performs this optimisation. But how does inlining in Go work? The Go implementation is very simple. When a package is compiled,any small function that is suitable for inlining is marked and then compiled as usual. Then both the source of the function and the compiled version are stored. This slide shows the contents of util.a. The source has been transformed a little to make it easier for the compiler to process quickly. When the compiler compiles Double it sees that Rather than insert a call to the compiled version of In this example,although the function Test always returns false,Expensive cannot know that without executing it. When The compiler now knows that the expensive code is unreachable. Not only does this save the cost of calling Test,it saves compiling or running any of the expensive code that is now unreachable. The Go compiler can automatically inline functions across files and even across packages. This includes code that calls inlinable functions from the standard library. Mandatory garbage collection makes Go a simpler and safer language. This does not imply that garbage collection makes Go slow,or that garbage collection is the ultimate arbiter of the speed of your program. What it does mean is memory allocated on the heap comes at a cost. It is a debt that costs CPU time every time the GC runs until that memory is freed. There is however another place to allocate memory,and that is the stack. Unlike C,which forces you to choose if a value will be stored on the heap,via Escape analysis determines whether any references to a value escape the function in which the value is declared. If no references escape,the value may be safely stored on the stack. Values stored on the stack do not need to be allocated or freed. Lets look at some examples Because the numbers slice is only referenced inside There is no need to garbage collect This second example is also a little contrived. In Then we pass Then finally we print the X and Y locations of that Even though Go’s optimisations are always enabled by default. You can see the compiler’s escape analysis and inlining decisions with the Because escape analysis is performed at compile time,not run time,stack allocation will always be faster than heap allocation,no matter how efficient your garbage collector is. I will talk more about the stack in the remaining sections of this talk. Go has goroutines. These are the foundations for concurrency in Go. I want to step back for a moment and explore the history that leads us to goroutines. In the beginning computers ran one process at a time. Then in the 60’s the idea of multiprocessing,or time sharing became popular. In a time-sharing system the operating systems must constantly switch the attention of the CPU between these processes by recording the state of the current process,then restoring the state of another. This is calledprocess switching. There are three main costs of a process switch. First is the kernel needs to store the contents of all the CPU registers for that process,then restore the values for another process. The kernel also needs to flush the CPU’s mappings from virtual memory to physical memory as these are only valid for the current process. Finally there is the cost of the operating system context switch,and the overhead of the scheduler function to choose the next process to occupy the CPU. There are a surprising number of registers in a modern processor. I have difficulty fitting them on one slide,which should give you a clue how much time it takes to save and restore them. Because a process switch can occur at any point in a process’ execution,the operating system needs to store the contents of all of these registers because it does not know which are currently in use. This lead to the development of threads,which are conceptually the same as processes,but share the same memory space. As threads share address space,they are lighter than processes so are faster to create and faster to switch between. Goroutines take the idea of threads a step further. Goroutines are cooperatively scheduled,rather than relying on the kernel to manage their time sharing. The switch between goroutines only happens at well defined points,when an explicit call is made to the Go runtime scheduler. The compiler knows the registers which are in use and saves them automatically. While goroutines are cooperatively scheduled,this scheduling is handled for you by the runtime. Places where Goroutines may yield to others are:
This an example to illustrate some of the scheduling points described in the previous slide. The thread,depicted by the arrow,starts on the left in the Execution continues until the read from the The scheduler switches the thread back to the right hand side for another channel operation,which has unblocked during the time the left hand side was running,but it blocks again on the channel send. Finally the thread switches back to the left hand side as the This slide shows the low level Any time your code results in a call to the operating system,it will go through this function. The call to This allows the runtime to spin up a new thread which will service other goroutines while this current thread blocked. This results in relatively few operating system threads per Go process,with the Go runtime taking care of assigning a runnable Goroutine to a free operating system thread. In the previous section I discussed how goroutines reduce the overhead of managing many,sometimes hundreds of thousands of concurrent threads of execution. There is another side to the goroutine story,and that is stack management,which leads me to my final topic. This is a diagram of the memory layout of a process. The key thing we are interested is the location of the heap and the stack. Traditionally inside the address space of a process,the heap is at the bottom of memory,just above the program (text) and grows upwards. The stack is located at the top of the virtual address space,and grows downwards. Because the heap and stack overwriting each other would be catastrophic,the operating system usually arranges to place an area of unwritable memory between the stack and the heap to ensure that if they did collide,the program will abort. This is called a guard page,and effectively limits the stack size of a process,usually in the order of several megabytes. We’ve discussed that threads share the same address space,so for each thread,it must have its own stack. Because it is hard to predict the stack requirements of a particular thread,a large amount of memory is reserved for each thread’s stack along with a guard page. The hope is that this is more than will ever be needed and the guard page will never be hit. The downside is that as the number of threads in your program increases,the amount of available address space is reduced. We’ve seen that the Go runtime schedules a large number of goroutines onto a small number of threads,but what about the stack requirements of those goroutines ? Instead of using guard pages,the Go compiler inserts a check as part of every function call to check if there is sufficient stack for the function to run. If there is not,the runtime can allocate more stack space. Because of this check,a goroutines initial stack can be made much smaller,which in turn permits Go programmers to treat goroutines as cheap resources. This is a slide that shows how stacks are managed in Go 1.2. Gcalls to This method of managing the stack works well in general,but for certain types of code,usually recursive code,it can cause the inner loop of your program to straddle one of these stack boundaries. For example,in the inner loop of your program,function Each time this will cause a stack split. This is known as the hot split problem. To solve hot splits,Go 1.3 has adopted a new stack management method. Instead of adding and removing additional stack segments,if the stack of a goroutine is too small,a new,larger,stack will be allocated. The old stack’s contents are copied to the new stack,then the goroutine continues with its new larger stack. After the first call to This resolves the hot split problem. Values,Inlining,Escape Analysis,Goroutines,and segmented/copying stacks. These are the five features that I chose to speak about today,but they are by no means the only things that makes Go a fast programming language,just as there more that three reasons that people cite as their reason to learn Go. As powerful as these five features are individually,they do not exist in isolation. Inlining reduces the cost of the stack size check by combining smaller functions into larger ones. Escape analysis reduces the pressure on the garbage collector by automatically moving allocations from the heap to the stack. Escape analysis is also provides better cache locality. Without growable stacks,escape analysis might place too much pressure on the stack. * Thank you to the Gocon organisers for permitting me to speak today (编辑:李大同) 【声明】本站内容均来自网络,其相关言论仅代表作者个人观点,不代表本站立场。若无意侵犯到您的权利,请及时与联系站长删除相关内容! |